Excursion Tour of Istanbul “Churches and holy places of the Byzantine Empire. Art of Byzantium

17 most important monuments of architecture, painting and decorative arts, with which you can get an idea of ​​how artistic culture developed in the Eastern Roman Empire

Prepared by Maria Grinberg

1. Sophia of Constantinople

532-537 years. Istanbul

Sophia of Constantinople. 1910-1915 Library of Congress

Hagia Sophia is the main architectural creation of Byzantium, created by the Asia Minor mathematician Anthimius of Thrall and the architect Isidore of Miletus. Not just the first temple of the empire, but the center of its church and political life, an integral part of the scrupulous, carefully thought-out court ceremonial, described, in particular, in the treatise “On Ceremonies” by Constantine Porphyrogenitus.

Hagia Sophia became the highest achievement of Byzantine architecture, being the heir of ancient architecture. Its idea was formulated by the architect Donato Bramante in the 15th century.  Donato Bramante(1444-1514) - Italian architect who built St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican.: "Dome of the Pantheon  Pantheon- a temple in Rome, built in 126 AD. It is a rotunda covered with a hemispherical dome., raised in the Basilica of Maxentius  Basilica of Maxentius- a temple in Rome, built in 308-312 AD in the form of a basilica: a rectangular structure consisting of three longitudinal naves covered with a stone vault." Indeed, the brilliant guess of the authors of Hagia Sophia was the idea of ​​merging two architectural ideas of Antiquity: the longitudinal ship of the central nave  Nave(from Latin navis - “ship”) - an elongated rectangular part of the interior, limited by one or two rows of columns and/or a wall. The space of medieval western and eastern temples is often divided into naves, where they came from ancient Greek and Roman architecture.(80 meters long) and the sphere crowning it (a flat, low drum and incredibly wide dome with a diameter of 31 meters) became a single whole: the thrust of the giant dome is “damped” by half-domes resting on powerful, complexly shaped pillars, from which the stone mass falls onto the sails and arches. Thanks to this, the side walls of the building became fragile, completely cut by windows, and the entire interior of Sofia was flooded with light, transforming the stone mass, making it weightless and intangible.

Thin shell of the walls, neutral on the outside (monotonous plinth  Plintha- wide and flat baked brick.), and precious inside (gold, natural stones, abundance of natural and artificial light), turned out to be the most important discovery of Byzantine architectural aesthetics and was embodied in a huge variety of forms. And the dome of Sophia became an idea fix of Byzantine and then Ottoman architecture, never repeated by anyone: the project of the architects of Justinian turned out to be too complex and ambitious.

Interior of Sophia of Constantinople. 2000s

Immediately after the completion of Hagia Sophia, its dome cracked and then underwent several repairs (the first of which occurred after the earthquake in 557), during which it was strengthened by building buttresses and blocking part of the drum windows. It is not surprising that over time, Sofia’s appearance has mutated greatly: its logical structural frame turned out to be hidden by powerful stone risalits  Rizalit- part of the facade, protruding beyond its main line at full height., small turrets and all kinds of service premises.

2. Church of the Holy Apostles (Apostoleion) in Constantinople

VI century. Istanbul

Ascension. In the background is probably the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Miniature from the homilies of Jacob Kokkinovathsky. 1125-1150 Wikimedia Commons

The rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire were characterized by bold ambitions. They are eloquently evidenced by the first Christian building of Constantinople - the so-called Apostoleion, erected by Emperor Constantine I the Great (306-337) in the very high point city, at the Adrianople Gate (where the Fatih Mosque now stands). Dedicated to the twelve apostles, the church became the storage place for their relics, as well as the relics of the emperor-builder, whose sarcophagus was erected in the center of the interior - literally illustrating the idea of ​​Constantine's equal-to-the-apostles.

Here is what the historian Eusebius of Caesarea writes about this:

“In this temple he prepared a place for himself in the event of his death, foreseeing with the extraordinary power of faith that after his death his relics would be honored with the titles of apostles, and desiring even after his death to take part in the prayers that would be offered in this temple in honor of the apostles. So, having built twelve arks there, like twelve sacred monuments, in honor and glory of the face of the apostles, in the middle of them he placed a coffin for himself so that on both sides of this coffin stood six apostles.”

"The Life of Blessed Basileus Constantine"

Two centuries later, under Emperor Justinian, the Church of Constantine was rebuilt, but in general terms retained the original plan. The Apostoleion of the 6th century, a grandiose cruciform temple with five domes, appeared for Byzantium almost the same emblematic image of the temple as Hagia Sophia: for centuries throughout the empire, from Kalat Semana in Syria to San Marco in Venice, his architectural idea inspired Byzantine builders. Apparently, it is he who is depicted on the sheet with the Ascension scene in the manuscript of the homilies of Jacob Kokkinovathsky  Around 1125-1150, Vatican..

In the mid-15th century, the Church of the Holy Apostles was demolished by order of Sultan Mehmet II Fatih. We nevertheless know it from many descriptions: Procopius of Caesarea (mid-6th century), Constantine Porphyrogenitus (mid-10th century), Constantine of Rhodes (mid-10th century) and Nicholas Mesarites (about 1200).

3. Church of Simeon the Stylite (Kalat-Seman)

475 Aleppo

Basilica of the Church of Simeon the Stylite. Syria, first half of the 20th century Library of Congress

In the 5th century in Eastern Syria, near Aleppo, Saint Simeon lived, who discovered a special type of asceticism - standing on a pillar. Renouncing the worldly in every possible way and caring about the mortification of the flesh, the monk was subjected to countless temptations, partially described in Luis Buñuel’s film “Simeon the Hermit.” Having spent several decades at an altitude of 16 meters, Simeon was honored by Christians from all over the world, including Persians, Armenians and the British.

Around that same pillar, which exists to this day (Byzantine miniaturists loved to depict Simeon’s pillar as a column with a capital, completed with an elegant balustrade, inside which the saint himself was located; sometimes a ladder was attached to the column), in the 80-90s of the 5th century there was A monastery complex was erected, the grandiose design of which found its equal only among the imperial ensembles of late Rome.

The octagonal core of Kalat Semana (translated from Arabic as “Simeon’s fortress”) is surrounded by three arms. Together they form a spatial cross, almost the same as in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Now the temple is in ruins, and what it exactly looked like immediately after construction is unknown, but thanks to the testimony of Evagrius Scholasticus, we know that the central core, which contained the pillar of Simeon, remained open.

Following Kalat-Seman, a whole architectural movement of the 5th-6th centuries arose, represented by the churches of Simeon the Stylite the Younger on the Wondrous Mountain, John in Ephesus and the Prophets, Apostles and Martyrs in Gerasa.

4. Barberini diptych

VI century. Louvre, Paris

Marie-Lan Nguyen / Wikimedia Commons

The late antique imperial diptych originally consisted of two ivory tablets, on one side polished and covered with wax (on them with a steel stick, style, notes were applied), and on the other, decorated with ivory relief inlaid with pearls.

Only one panel of the Barberini diptych (named after its 17th-century owner) has survived. It represents the triumph of an emperor (which one is unknown: possible contenders are the emperors Justinian, Anastasius I or Zeno), whose head is crowned with a palm branch by an allegorical figurine of Nike, the goddess of victory. The Emperor sits on a horse and raises his spear, and at his feet lies the generous, fruitful Earth (in the figure of art historian Andre Grabar  Andre Grabar(1896-1990) - Byzantineist, one of the founders of the French school of Byzantine art criticism. saw a hint of a universal role Byzantine emperors).

According to imperial iconographers and panegyrists, the enemies of the basileus were like wild animals. Therefore, in the Barberini diptych, trampled barbarians, dressed in exotic clothes, march in the same column with elephants, lions and tigers to present their gifts to the triumphant. Absolutely antique iconography, which has adopted the only sign of the new era - the image of Christ crowning the scene of the imperial triumph.

The Barberini diptych is one of the most brilliant and technically advanced works of art of the 6th century. After Emperor Justinian, such diptychs ceased to be in use, but even among the surviving objects there is hardly a copy as luxurious, intricate and finely executed.

5. Viennese Genesis

First half of the 6th century. Austrian National Library, Vienna

Rebekah and Eliezer at the well. Miniature from Vienna Genesis. 6th century De Agostini Picture Library/Getty Images

In addition, the oldest well-preserved illustrated manuscript of the Bible dates back to the 6th century. It contains a fragment of the text of the Book of Genesis written on purple with silver ink - an expensive rarity, clearly indicating the royal origin of its owner.

Each page of Genesis is decorated with miniatures. Some of them have the form of friezes (the plots on them are not chronologically connected), while others are built like a picture and are framed: if there was no need for compositionally independent miniatures in the scroll, it arose during the transition to the codex book.

Like the Barberini diptych, the painting of the Viennese Genesis is full of ancient allusions and is reminiscent of the paintings of Pompeii: this is served by graceful columns, porticoes and airy velums  Velum(from Latin velum - sail) - curtain, bedspread, usually depicted as arched. Images of velums are common in icon painting, but date back to Antiquity., allegorical figures of sources and bucolic motifs. Early Christian painting was in no hurry to part with its Roman past.

6. Icon of the Mother of God with saints

VI-VII centuries. Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Wikimedia Commons

Antique ideas about the image also dominate early icons, for example, the icon with images of the Mother of God and Child and holy martyrs from the collection of the Sinai monastery. The images of Mary seated on the throne, Christ and two angels are still sensual and spatially reliable in the ancient way, and their faces (or rather, faces) are emotionally neutral and filled with calm.

On the contrary, the martyrs (possibly the holy warriors Theodore and George - based on the typical similarity to their later codified portraits) with golden crosses in their hands (as a sign of their martyrdom and posthumous glory) are painted in a way that very soon, when the iconoclastic disputes are over, will be decided in the East -Christian icon painters and theologians. Hidden by luxurious mantles, their figures resemble appliqués; small symbolic legs are placed as if the bodies were suspended in the air, and the faces (already faces, not faces) are stern, motionless and numbly looking forward: what for life-loving Antiquity is sheer boredom, for Byzantium is a spiritual ideal based on self-renunciation.

The icon was painted with wax paints (like the few other surviving contemporaries from the collection of the Sinai monastery and National Museum Arts named after Varvara and Bogdan Khanenko in Kyiv). Painting with wax paints, which had disappeared from the practice of icon painters by the 8th century, made it possible to paint “hot” (when the next layer of paint was applied to the already dried lower one). Thanks to this, the paint surface kept the strokes visible, essentially conveying the movement of the brush, the handwriting and manner of the artist. Such spontaneity subsequently turned out to be inappropriate for developed theological ideas about the iconographic image.

7. Khludov Psalter

Mid-9th century. State Historical Museum, Moscow

Iconoclasts John the Grammar and Bishop Anthony of Silea. Khludov Psalter. Byzantium, approximately 850 rijksmuseumamsterdam.blogspot.ru

The Khludov psalter, named after Alexei Ivanovich Khludov, who owned the manuscript in the 19th century, is one of three surviving psalters created in the Studite monastery of Constantinople shortly after the restoration of icon veneration (after two centuries of literal oblivion of fine art, during the years 726-843, anthropomorphic images of Christ and the saints remained outside the law). This manuscript (the so-called monastic edition of the psalter with illustrations in the margins) is the most complete of the three and the most abundantly illustrated.

The most telling feature of her miniatures is the artistic response to recent events. The illustration for Psalm 68:22, “And they gave me gall for food, and in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink,” depicts two iconoclasts dipping the sponges at the ends of their spears into lime to smear the face of Christ with them. Their long, standing hair brings to mind medieval depictions of the devil, who traditionally wore a similar hairstyle. On the same page there is an explicit comparison of the iconoclasts with those who crucified Christ (the same movements and objects in their hands), which leaves no chance for rehabilitation for the former - their faces, so hated by the medieval reader of the manuscript, were scraped out.

8. Minology of Vasily II

Beginning of the 11th century. Vatican Library

20 thousand martyrs of Nicomedia. Miniature from the Minology of Basil II. Early 11th century Wikimedia Commons

The 10th-11th centuries in Byzantium became a time of great hagiographic  Hagiography- a set of lives of saints and other genres dedicated to the life and work of saints, such as miracles, martyrdoms, etc. projects like minology  Minologius - a collection of the lives of saints arranged in the order of their commemoration during the liturgical year (September to August). Symeon Metaphrastus, stylistic unification of hagiographic texts and compilation of collections free from pre-iconoclastic marginal subjects.

The manuscript, now kept in the Vatican, was conceived as a luxurious illustrated collection of the lives of saints, presented to Emperor Basil II the Bulgarian Slayer (976-1025). Each life takes up only 16 lines per page, while the rest of the page is devoted to miniatures. This is a unique case for Byzantine book writing of the subordination of text to image: the miniatures were written first (on several pages the text area remained empty). The code preserved the names of eight artists who worked on the creation of 430 illustrations - unprecedented material for analyzing not only the handwriting of the masters, but also the question of their cooperation within the artel.

The Minology of Basil II is a brilliant example of mature Byzantine art: in miniatures with portraits of saints and scenes of their martyrdom, a delicate balance was found between the imitation of reality, characteristic of Antiquity, and medieval convention and asceticism. Natural forms characteristic of nature turn into geometric ones; soft halftones - in golden assist  Assist- lines applied in gold over the paint layer. Symbolizes divine light.; faces with individually specific features - into frozen symmetrical faces.

9. Mosaics and frescoes of the monastery of Hosios Loukas in Phokis

Around 1040. Greece

Baptism. Mosaic of the nave in the monastery of Hosios Loukas. Phocis, 11th century Wikimedia Commons

This artistic movement reached its apogee in the ensemble of the monastery of Hosios Loukas (St. Luke) in Phokis. Its katholikon (main temple) and crypt (underground room) have preserved amazing mosaics and frescoes from the 40s of the 11th century - the time of the so-called ascetic style, popular not only in monasteries, but also among provincial princes (the mosaics and frescoes of St. Sophia of Kyiv were made in that same manner). It can be assumed that this aesthetics was formed in the artistic circles of Constantinople: this is indirectly indicated by the exceptional quality of performance of the Greek ensemble.

On the shining golden background of the dome of the Hosios Loukas katholikon, the descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles is represented - quite rare iconography in Byzantium, glorified in the descriptions of the Apostoleion of Constantinople.

The descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles. Mosaic in the monastery of Hosios Loukas. Phocis, 11th century Wikimedia Commons

Without following nature, mosaicists Hosios-Lukas reduce the figures of saints almost to symbols, emphasizing only the most significant details - the characters’ gestures and their huge identical frozen eyes. The skillful marble cladding of the walls demonstrates the Byzantine understanding of the hierarchy of architecture: evangelical scenes and images of saints on a golden background hover at the level of the vaults, while the lower planes of the walls are occupied by an abstract pattern of natural stone.

Among the rarities of Hosios Loukas is the crypt under the katholikon, the burial place of St. Luke, painted simultaneously with the katholikon itself with frescoes depicting the feasts and passion of Christ. A significant place in the paintings of the entire ensemble is occupied by images of saints, many of whom are monks, including locally revered ones (Luke Gurnikiot, Nikon Metanoit, Luke Styriot). The monastic and local character of the temple's decoration program is combined with a high-born capital order: the founder of the monastery was Emperor Romanus II (died 963).

Grandiose for its time, the Hosios-Lukas project is an example of the Middle Byzantine synthesis of architecture, painting and sculpture, creating the ideal iconographic scheme of a cross-domed temple.

10. Chalice of Emperor Roman

10th century Treasury of the Cathedral of San Marco, Venice

De Agostini Picture Library/Getty Images

The chalice (a liturgical vessel used for consecrating wine and receiving the sacrament) is one of the treasures brought from Constantinople to Venice by participants in the Fourth crusade in 1204. Made of sardonyx, gilded silver, pearls and cloisonne enamel, this chalice was the contribution of a certain Byzantine emperor to one of the capital's churches: on the base of its stem is engraved an inscription asking for God's help to the emperor, described in the epithets “faithful” and “orthodox”. It is believed that this emperor was Romanus I Lecapinus (920-944), who ascended the throne after Leo VI (886-912).

At the top of the vessel there are fifteen enamel plates framed with pearl threads. They feature half-figures of Christ, John the Baptist, the Mother of God, the evangelists and the Fathers of the Church - in essence, a painting of the church in miniature - preserving both its central images and their hierarchical structure.

11. Holy Crown of Hungary

1074-1077. Parliament Palace, Budapest

© Wikimedia Commons

© Wikimedia Commons

© Wikimedia Commons

The compositional center of the crown is decorated with enamel plates with images of Christ and Emperor Michael VII Duca (probably intended for another, unknown object presented by the Byzantine basileus to the ruler of Hungary and incorporated into the crown later). On one side of the crown sits Christ, surrounded by the archangels Michael and Gabriel and several saints (George and Dmitry, Kozma and Damian), with their faces turned to the King of Heaven. On the other side of the crown, as if reflecting its frontal part, on either side of the Byzantine autocrat sit his son Constantine and King Geza I of Hungary. They look at the basileus with the same kind of humility and submission as the saints look at the Supreme Judge.

The territory of Byzantium was inhabited by over twenty peoples, almost each of which had its own original culture, dating back to ancient times. Along with the Greeks, the Egyptians, Syrians, the peoples of Transcaucasia, especially the Armenians, the peoples of the Crimea, as well as numerous Slavs in the empire, took part in the formation of Byzantine culture. Byzantine Emperors, military leaders, scientists, writers, artists, architects and church leaders came from a wide variety of ethnic groups in the Byzantine population.

The complex nature of Byzantine culture, in which diverse influences crossed, is visible primarily in works of art and artistic crafts. Thus, the Temple of Sophia, built under Justinian according to the plans of two Asia Minor architects - Isidore from Miletus and Anthemius from Trallis - represents a peculiar combination of the plan of a western basilica with an eastern design type - a grandiose domed ceiling. In the lace ornament of the cornices, in the multi-colored mosaics that decorate the upper parts of the temple, one can also see a fusion of Eastern and ancient Western motifs.

If we take samples of Byzantine patterned silk fabrics, then in the motifs of the patterns we will discover Iranian, Indian and other eastern influences (stylized elephants, lions, heraldic birds), while in technical terms we can trace a direct continuation of ancient traditions. Byzantine jewelry, often distinguished by great artistic taste, also reflect the influence of ancient art, reproducing, along with religious Christian subjects, scenes from ancient mythology.

If we turn to the spiritual culture of Byzantium, then here too we will see, on the one hand, the presence of various intersecting influences, and on the other, a continuous ancient tradition. Unlike the West, people here have never stopped reading and studying ancient Greek scientists, philosophers, historians and poets. The last center of pagan philosophical thought, the Athenian High School, existed here until 529, when it was closed by Justinian, i.e., much longer than the Western centers of learning. The study of Roman law in the schools of Alexandria, Beirut, and Constantinople was never interrupted. In these cities, on the basis of legal and philosophical education, universities of a kind arose, of which the University of Constantinople was the most famous. According to the staff established for him by the imperial decree of 425, there were 31 professors teaching rhetoric, grammar, philosophy and legal sciences.

In the 8th century in connection with the iconoclasm and reform activities of the Isaurs, secular scientific thought and secular literature receded into the background before theological writings. The literary activity of the two pillars of icon veneration, John of Damascus and Fyodor the Studite, dates back to this time. The first of them, in his “Source of Knowledge,” was the first to systematize the dogmas of Christianity, the second left many letters and treatises of theological content. In the 9th century. interest in secular and especially ancient literature is being revived. This interest received its most vivid expression in the activities of Patriarch Photius, the author of “Myriobiblion” - an extensive collection of extracts and reviews of books read. This is one of the most curious examples of Byzantine literary criticism, extending over several hundred, mainly ancient works. At the same time, the work of Photius testifies to the compilative, uncreative nature of Byzantine scientific thought in the 9th century. The works of the 10th century are distinguished by the same feature. - extensive agricultural and historical encyclopedias compiled on behalf of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus by compiling the ancient scientific heritage; Svida's historical and philological dictionary and many others. However, Constantine VII himself owned the treatises “On State Administration” and “On the Ceremonies of the Byzantine Court,” which provide valuable data about the life of that era and a number of important historical and geographical information, in particular about the Russian lands.

In the 11th century The most prominent figure of the Byzantine scholarly world is Michael Psellus, a lawyer, philosopher, philologist, historian and poet, who combined the talents of a flattering courtier and intriguer with broad encyclopedic education.

If in the field of philosophical and scientific thought Byzantium did not go further than assimilate and comment on the scientific heritage of the ancient world, then in the field of chronicle writing it produced many original works. Starting from Zosimus in the 5th century, Procopius of Caesarea and Thwophylactus Simocatta in the 6th century, through a number of subsequent centuries stretches a continuous strip of “histories” and “chronicles”, dedicated either to individual reigns, or to the presentation of the historical destinies of the entire human race “from the flood” and until the author's lifetime. Some of these chronicles, for example, those of John Malala, George Amartol, and others, had a strong influence on Russian chronicles.

A unique monument of Byzantine culture and literary creativity are also the countless lives of saints, valuable to the modern historian for the abundance of everyday details and historical data scattered in them. Byzantine hagiographic literature penetrated even more widely into Rus' than historical writing, becoming the favorite reading of Russian scribes and having a great influence on ancient Russian literature.

Fiction occupies a relatively modest place in the cultural heritage of Byzantium. In its theme and form, it was initially associated with ancient literature, but then church influences prevailed here. The most remarkable example of a Byzantine secular novel is “The Tale of Digenis Akrites,” which is reminiscent in its nature of the works of Western European feudal epic (“The Song of Roland,” “The Cid,” etc.). “The Tale of Digenis” was very popular in Rus', as evidenced by a number of surviving Russian manuscripts of this work. Numerous collections of sayings, sayings, and sayings of the “Church Fathers” also came from Byzantium to Rus', known under the names “Flowers”, “Bees”, etc.

In contrast to the feudal culture of the early Western Middle Ages, Byzantine culture was never exclusively ecclesiastical. On the contrary, secular elements sometimes even prevailed in it. In the same way, the Byzantine school, and therefore the education of society, was less dependent on the church than in the West. That is why the penetration of Byzantine cultural influences into Rus', although coming under the banner of Christianity and church building, could in due time prove fruitful for the development of Russian secular culture.

Church art of the time of St. Constantine the Great

Since the time of St. Constantine the Great (IV century), church architecture begins to develop rapidly. Although the pagan temples were empty, Christians did not want to use them for their worship. During this period, the main types of Christian churches emerged: 1) basilica , 2) centric , 3) mixed type .

The most famous architectural form of a church building, at least in the West of the Empire, was an oblong quadrangle. This form satisfied all liturgical needs: the construction of an altar, a pulpit, a common church, and also allowed for extensions to house church utensils and baptismal rooms. Due to their external resemblance to the ancient court buildings, called basilicas or royal houses, the temples received the same name - basil. This name was established for the churches erected by St. Constantine in Rome, Constantinople and Jerusalem, and later behind all temples of this type.

According to their plan, the ancient Christian basilicas They were an oblong structure, the length of which was equal to two latitudes taken together, and were covered with a gable roof. The interior space of the basilica was divided by rows of columns into three or five naves (parts). In the eastern part, a semicircle (or several semicircles) was arranged to highlight the altar (nave). In small churches that were not divided into naves, there was one altar semicircle. In the western part of the basilica there was a porch (or narthex). Often, basilicas had a transverse nave (or transept). The transept was placed either at the end of the longitudinal naves, or crossed them closer to the altar, then the basilica took on the shape of an oblong (Latin) cross in plan.

Among the basilica churches, the following are famous: in Rome - the Church of Mary the Great (5th century), St. Clement of Rome, St. Peter in chains (440-462), St. Paul outside the walls of Rome (360-400); in Bethlehem – Church of the Nativity (IV century); in Constantinople - the Church of St. Apostles (IV century); in Jerusalem - the Church of the Resurrection of Christ (IV century).

Another type of ancient Christian temples, along with basilicas, are centric temples . These are round or polygonal temples: octagons, polygons, etc. Such temples were less common than basilicas. More often these were tomb churches and baptisteries (baptisteries). The most famous of these churches are the rotunda of St. Peter and Marcellinus in Rome; St. George in Thessaloniki; mausoleum of St. Constanza in Rome and Theodoric in Ravenna; Lateran Baptistery in Rome and Ravenna Baptistery.

To the third type of temples - mixed, include ancient temples that are a combination of basilicas and centric temples.

Already from this time, characteristic features of architecture in the East and West appeared. In the West of the empire, the basilica type of temple remained the main type of architectural building. In the East, changes quickly occurred through the use of large domes in the construction of basilicas. At the same time, in the East, along with elongated basilica churches, temples in the form of a square (Greek cross) were built. The main feature of all temples was the indispensable allocation of the altar on the eastern side of the temple. Basilica churches, which appeared in ancient times, continued to exist subsequently.

Christian emperors, who diligently cared about establishing the Christian faith, put a lot of work into the construction of magnificent churches, thereby contributing to the development of church architecture. Although it should be noted that the splendor mostly related to the interior decoration of the temples - the exterior mostly retained a rather modest appearance.

Along with the formation of church architecture, monumental and pictorial art is developing especially fruitfully: painting, mosaics, stone carving, metal and wood products, etc.

Mosaic (musivum opus) - the art of composing individual images and entire compositions from pieces of a solid substance (glass, marble, or special opaque glass smalt of different colors). For this purpose, a special primer of mastic or cement is applied to the surface where it is planned to apply the mosaic, in which pieces of smalt are strengthened in the order of colors and shadows, as required by the artist’s plan.

Among the oldest Christian mosaics, unfortunately, the mosaic of the Church of Constantius in Rome (IV century) that has not survived is known, depicting Jesus Christ on a mountain from which four heavenly rivers flow. On His sides are depicted the apostles: Peter, to whom He gives a scroll with the inscription “Dominus pacem dat,” and Paul. Along the edges of the composition are two cities: Jerusalem and Bethlehem.

Along with mosaics, fresco painting became widespread. So, even during the reign of St. The Basilica of Constantine Lateran in Rome was painted with frescoes depicting Sacred History, beginning with the fall of Adam and ending with the entrance of the prudent thief into heaven.

Byzantine art is a product of the fusion of many ancient arts, especially in the early days of its existence. Hellenic art was reinterpreted by Christianity. However, it was not mechanical borrowing and random combinations of ready-made elements, although technically advanced, that became the basis of Byzantine church art, but their deep theological understanding. Byzantine art, which absorbed and transformed many artistic cultures of different peoples, primarily Eastern ones, from its very beginning became a national and independent art.

The process of the formation of Byzantine art, the formation and development of style is a long and complex process. The basis of all Byzantine art was its inextricable fusion with the Church and worship. Thanks to this, an architectural and iconographic canon is formed. Fine art ceased to be the work of individuals, it became a matter of the conciliar (church), and in it the teaching of the Church was expressed in its entirety.

Transfer of the capital of the empire under St. Constantine from west to east marked the advent of a new era in the history of Christian art. Here Byzantine art, the greatest in its historical and cultural significance, was born and soon strengthened. At the same time, the art of the Western part of the empire, seeking support in Greco-Roman pagan art, gradually switched to a different path of development.

Byzantine icon painting. Monumental paintings, mosaics

Along with the development of original church architecture, Byzantium created the greatest iconography and painting in terms of its historical significance. Gradually, the pictorial symbolism of the first centuries of Christianity gives way to a historical view; The highest ideal of Christian art lies not in the charm and grace of external forms, but in the dignity of internal expression. The fine art of Byzantium becomes not just a necessary condition of church life, but an expression of high Christian ideas, images, and dogmatic teaching.

Of all the types of fine art of Byzantium, it revealed itself most fully in its internal content. icon painting. The conventional language of the external forms of the icon serves only as a conventional way of expressing deep theological truths and spiritual content. Byzantium “created” the icon as a special type of church creativity. By means of visual means, Byzantine masters discovered the entire depth of church teaching, the entire fullness of Orthodoxy.

Icon painting, by its nature, is a deeply liturgical liturgical art, sharply different from all other types of fine art.

In the process of long searches, in accordance with the ancient tradition of the Church, dogmatic teaching and patristic heritage, special iconographic canons were developed in icon painting. The entire iconography of Byzantium can be divided into: 1) the image of Christ, 2) the image of the Mother of God, 3) compositions of the Twelve Feasts, 4) images of saints.

The conventional image of Christ, found in painting until the 4th-5th centuries, gradually leaves Byzantine art - it is replaced by a completely different iconographic image. The depicted face of the Savior in fine art takes on a strict and more expressive character: the hair is long, parted in the middle; a beard appears, sometimes divided into two parts. The Savior adopts a cross-shaped halo. This iconographic type becomes traditional for all Byzantine painting. This type means St. John of Damascus, when he says: “Jesus Christ was tall and slender, had beautiful eyes, a straight nose, curly hair, a dark beard, a head bowed slightly forward, a yellowish body color like his Mother.” The historian Nicephorus Callistus complements this description, saying that “Jesus Christ had a beautiful face, had light brown, not particularly thick hair, black eyebrows, cheerful eyes, long hair, a bowed neck, a round face, an expressionless expression, in everything like his Mother.”

The most common images of Christ in Byzantine icon painting are: the Image Not Made by Hands (Ubrus), the Pantocrator (Pantocrator), the Deesis (Christ with those present), Emmanuel (the Youth Christ).

Byzantine art developed a majestic pictorial image of the Mother of God. Since the time of the Third Ecumenical (Ephesus) Council (431), which established the highest dignity of the Mother of God as the Mother of God, images of the Mother of God should have been distinguished by certainty and strict character. The image of the Mother of God is distinguished by strict, majestic beauty, regular facial features, large eyes, a straight nose, and thin lips. This iconographic image runs through all the monuments of Byzantine art and is retained to this day. The entire iconography of the Mother of God especially emphasizes Her divine dignity and inner greatness, and not the luxury and beauty of external forms.

The main types of Mother of God icons developed by Byzantine icon painters: Hodegetria (the Mother of God holding the Child-Chritus in front of Her), the Sign (Great Panagia), Tenderness, Oranta (Heavenly Intercessor), etc.

After the end of the iconoclastic disputes in Byzantium, a calmer creative period began. At this time, the system of temple paintings and mosaics was finally formed. This was not a simple decoration of churches, but a clearly worked out, fairly condensed (in terms of the number of plots) formula, which embodied all the richness of the divinely revealed truths of the economy of human salvation. The entire system of paintings and mosaics received logical completeness and strict consistency.

Figures on icons and frescoes lose their materiality, their faces acquire a strict, ascetic character, and much attention is paid to the eyes of the person depicted. The spatial environment is schematized, the pictorial interpretation gives way to a linear one. The colorful range of icons and paintings is always strictly verified and subordinated to a single perception of the image.

A special characteristic feature of all Byzantine fine art is the maximum reduction of all possible details in the images and the maximum expressiveness of the main image. This laconicism in the means of expression also corresponds to the laconic and restrained nature of the gospel narrative.

Byzantium and Christian art

Byzantine art had a strong, fruitful influence on the national art of the Balkan countries, Armenia, Italy, France, Germany; it imparted many features to Arab and Turkish art. We will not at all appreciate the contribution of Byzantine art to the formation of the art of Ancient Rus', which then continued for several more centuries, constantly nourishing the original art of Rus'.

The focus of all Byzantine culture, its dogmatic center, was Christ. The Christological character of theology was most widely reflected in the art of Byzantium. The historical appearance of the Savior here was given a dogmatic, sacred, royal character. The same applies to the image of the Mother of God and the saints. All church art of Byzantium has a pronounced dogmatic character. The special ecclesiastical character of all Byzantine art is closely connected with the intense theological activity of the Church of Constantinople, the entire empire, and with the ecclesiastical character of all life. Hymnography also has a special place in the heritage of Byzantium. It is necessary to mention such saints as: St. Roman the Sweet Singer (VI century), St. Andrey Kritsky, Rev. John of Damascus and others

The icon occupies a special place in the church art of Byzantium. Byzantine iconography developed all types of iconography. For the most part, these were images of the Savior and Holy Mother of God, as well as Holidays. The fundamental basis of all Byzantine icons is the dogmas of the Church, church tradition and the history of the Church. Byzantine icon painting finally abandons the remnants of ancient art and is imbued with deep Christian spirituality. This main feature of icon painting is characterized, first of all, by the presence of spirituality and asceticism in it. Physical beauty, which was worshiped in the ancient world, loses its charm for the icon painter. The ascetic icon painter shifts his main attention to religious and moral principles, setting the goal of revealing primarily spiritual beauty.

ARCHITECTURE IV – VII CENTURIES

Even if there were altar partitions before the iconoclastic period, they were low, rather in the form of a parapet. Such low partitions existed even before the 12th-14th centuries. However, already from the 6th century there are partitions made of columns rising above the parapet. Icons and other images were hung on the columns. Strictly speaking, there was no “local row” in the ancient iconostasis at all. The openings between the columns were at some points covered with curtains. The rest of the time the altar was open.

The basilica symbolizes the ship on which we rush into eternity (apse). In this form of temples there is no idea of ​​the “Kingdom of God within man.” There is an idea of ​​movement, but there is no thesis of achievement. Therefore, domed basilicas appear in the east, which quickly turn into centric churches with a dome. The clearest example is Sofia Kpl. This is a greatly transformed domed basilica. Moreover, almost nothing remains of the basilica there. For the East, actual eternity is important, its shadow all around us already now. We walk under God and are partakers of His Kingdom.

Sophia Kpl - the most significant temple of the ancient Christian world, 4th century. Nothing like this was created in the Middle Ages. Modern temples(20th century), of course, is higher, but Sofia is more spacious and larger in size than any modern temple. Inside Sofia, almost nothing from the pre-iconoclastic period has been preserved, except for the architecture. The origin of the ornament is questionable. The temple is well preserved in its architectural aspect. The huge dome, permeated with light, is amazing. The abundance of light is explained by the small partitions between the windows. These partitions are “eaten up”.

Also in the 4th century, the Church of the Holy Apostles was built in Kpl. The difference and peculiarity of this temple is that the 5 domes are located not in the corners, but in the cardinal directions. In general, churches are modest on the outside and magnificent on the inside - a symbol of the life of a Christian.

Mosaics are widely used in the Christian world. But if in antiquity the mosaic material was gravel, then in Christian times smalt mosaics were glass, which was boiled with paints, then broken into even plates and laid out, alternating with marble fragments. The peculiarity of early mosaics compared to the 19th century is that the ancients did not lay out the plates perfectly evenly, but at angles, as a result of which the image turned out to be three-dimensional, alive, and playful.

Mosaic work is generally a very expensive occupation and few could afford it. But mosaics are the main examples of surviving ancient art. The paintings have hardly survived: time and iconoclasts destroyed many examples. In Kpl itself, not even mosaics have been preserved. We see examples of mosaic art in other cities. First of all, this is Ravenna, a city in northern Italy. Ravenna was connected with Kpl, the emperor's exarch was located there. Several mosaic ensembles have been preserved here. Excellent in terms of their level of execution, they are indicative of several criteria: 1) these are ancient examples in themselves, 2) despite the fact that Ravenna is associated with the east (Kpl), the art here is “Western style” - we see many allegories of catacomb art; although there are differences from the catacombs. For example, the Good Shepherd is already in the usual clothes of Christ, he is beardless, but already with a halo. A tradition of solemn sitting appears, although not yet on a throne, but on stones. On clothes we see clades - stripes that indicate the degree of teaching. Also in Ravenna two baptisteries from the 5th and 6th centuries have been preserved. They are covered with rich ornaments, and their architecture and sculptures are well preserved. In one of them, the Church of St. Appolinarius, the absence of a ceiling is clearly visible. In Catholic churches after the 2nd Vatican Council (1962-65), the altar is placed almost in the middle of the church and the priest performs the service facing the people. Western allegories: Christ, symbols of the evangelists, 12 sheep.

From the 6th century a tradition appeared to surround the altar with images of saints. On the one hand, this is a prayer image, on the other, a symbol of liturgical communication and tradition. On the ceiling of the Church of St. Appolinarius is an image of the Transfiguration. And again in allegories: three sheep, a cross with Christ in the center, beardless Moses and Elijah on the clouds. In general, in the churches of Ravenna the Western Catholic allegorical nature of images and mosaics is clearly expressed. Christ is still beardless, but halos are already in place. Halos, by the way, appear in Byzantium and were more a symbol of imperial status rather than personal holiness. This tradition was adopted by Russian masters. In the Faceted Chamber of the Kremlin, all the depicted sovereigns have halos, including Ivan the Terrible. The halo was originally a symbol of ktitorship (ktitor is a sponsor-builder). The abundance of surviving examples of art is explained by the remoteness of Ravenna from the center of iconoclasm - Kpolya.

In the east, 6th century, under the same Justinian, a cathedral was built in the monastery of St. Catherine, Sinai. Samples of painting are also preserved here. In particular, the Transfiguration on the altar ceiling. Based on the examples of painting, one can judge that the East has generally become more familiar with the gospel (due to the proximity of Palestine) and the transmission of legends through images is more truthful, although cruder, than the sublime Roman-Hellenic tradition. On the Solunsky samples we see an amazing element - square halos on the ktitors. Also unusual is the position of the saints on some icons - their hands placed in a friendly manner on each other’s shoulders. Square halos are a ubiquitous Byzantine tradition, they just haven’t survived everywhere. The symbol is a still living person. The Emperor, even now alive, still has a round halo. Thessalonica mosaics are the oldest - 4 centuries. Also preserved are examples of pre-iconoclastic mosaics in Cyprus. A number of mosaics have survived in Rome. The most important monument is Santa Maria Maggiore, a temple in Rome. The theme of the Virgin Mary is especially developed in this temple. By showing her significance, the term Christ Mother is discarded, because if she had given birth to a simple person, then Her significance would have been small.

In the temples of the pre-iconoclastic period there are many relief and sculptural images. These images are characterized by greater chastity than later Catholic sculptures. In the East, relief images, like icons, are flattened, gradually converging on a dispassionate transmission of meaning, but not emotions and feelings.

Modern Istanbul is full of attractions that ordinary tourists are completely unaware of. Moreover, even many experienced guides are not aware of some cultural monuments that have survived since Byzantine times. Meanwhile, a tour of the sights that have been preserved from the times of Constantinople can become the most exciting journey during your entire stay in the Turkish metropolis.

If you want to touch the secrets of the Byzantine Empire, appreciate its former greatness and enjoy the medieval spirit, be sure to go to the shores of the Bosphorus, to the unknown and vast Istanbul!

Today we will try to imagine what they looked like historical monuments The Byzantine era - some of them have survived to this day, the other part was destroyed over time and in their place we can observe only fragments of their former greatness.

Great Hippodrome of Constantinople (Hippodrome Square, Istanbul)

The Hippodrome of Constantinople was once one of the most magnificent buildings in the city. To build this object, which later turned into a grandiose one cultural monument, began with the suggestion of the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus. The year 203 is considered to be the start of construction. At that time the city still bore the proud name of Byzantium. The Hippodrome, which was also called the Great Circus, was the largest of its kind in Constantinople. By the way, there were five of them in total. Equestrian competitions, gladiator fights, and luxurious festivities were held here. The Hippodrome was the main political place - in its arena new emperors assumed their powers and old ones resigned, and death penalties were carried out. It was at the Hippodrome that the common people could become at least a small part of the capital’s social and political life.

Today there are not many reminders left of the Circus Maximus. These include the Serpentine Column, the obelisks of Theodosius and Egypt, as well as the vast square itself, called the Hippodrome (today -).

Hippodrome Square on the map:

Churches and monasteries of Constantinople

Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya Müzesi)

Hagia Sophia, reconstruction

It is rightly called the tourist pearl of Istanbul, preserved from the times of the Byzantine Empire. The construction of the shrine was initiated by Emperor Justinian, and already 5 years after laying the first stone, at the end of December 537, the Christian monastery was consecrated and opened to parishioners. The process of construction of the cathedral was led by Anthemius of Thrall and Isidora of Miletus. Over 10,000 people worked diligently under their leadership.

For almost a whole millennium, Hagia Sophia was the center of the Orthodox world for Christians. Many significant historical events took place in the cathedral. Here, rulers were crowned kings, military successes were celebrated, and dissidents periodically carried out barbaric raids, destroying precious mosaics. Hagia Sophia also survived the invasion of the Latin crusaders, who destroyed the altar and plundered the shrine. When Constantinople fell to the Ottomans, the cathedral was converted into a mosque.

In the 30s of the 20th century, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk decided to abolish the mosque, and in 1935 a museum complex was founded on its territory.

The cost of visiting the museum is 40 liras; admission is free if available.

Hagia Sophia on the map:

Church of Sergius and Bacchus (Küçük Ayasofya - Little Hagia Sophia)

Church of Sergius and Bacchus, Istanbul

If you go south of Hagia Sophia, behind the Blue Mosque, you will come across a stunningly beautiful temple, which the Byzantines named in honor of Sergius and Bacchus. In those days, this place was home to many amazing palace complexes, characteristic of the rich architecture of Constantinople. Unfortunately, all the palaces have fallen into oblivion, and only the temple continues to stand peacefully in the place where it was once erected.

Externally, the temple is very similar to the same Hagia Sophia - a kind of smaller copy. The Turks call the shrine Küçük Ayasofya, which means “Little Hagia Sophia” in Russian. The shrine was built by order of the ruler Justinian, who promised to build it in memory of the Nika uprising, which became one of the saddest events in the history of the city. During the uprising local residents The emperor's troops brutally dealt with them, there were a lot of victims. The construction of the church was completed by 536. Sergius and Bacchus were very popular saints in those days, so it was decided to name the monastery after them. The beauty and monumentality of the interior amazes. Some innovative moves and ideas were used in architecture. If you climb onto the platform, you can see a relief inscription in Greek, which glorifies the good deeds of Justinian. This is no coincidence: after its opening, untold riches were stored in the church. The temple was one of the main territories where foreign ambassadors were received with honor. Popes stayed here during their visits to Constantinople.

Of course, the temple was converted into a mosque a long time ago, which is still in operation today. Therefore, if you get to church during a service, you will not be able to see everything you would like.

Church of Sergius and Bacchus on the map:

Lipsa Monastery (Lips Manastırı Kilisesi, Fenari Isa Mosque)

Lipsa Monastery, Istanbul

At the dawn of the 10th century, Konstantin Lips founded the beautiful Church of the Virgin. Today the structure has been converted into a Muslim shrine, but it was once the site of a vast monastic complex named after its founder.

Lipsa Monastery (Fenari Isa Mosque)

Konstantin Lips became famous in Constantinople precisely because he contributed to the restoration of the ancient monastery, and also built a church monastery there. Very little is known about the Byzantine dignitary himself, his life and work.

Outwardly it looks as if it consists of two churches fused into a single whole. The first to appear was the northern church, located at a distance from the avenue, and subsequently, already in the 8th century, a second church was built, at the behest of Empress Theodora from the Palaiologos dynasty. Godly woman revived old monastery and wanted to add a southern church to it, named in honor of John the Baptist. This temple served as a tomb for members of the dynasty for many years. Theodora is buried in the same place, and with her her son, as well as the ruler Andronik II.

The monastery became a mosque in 1453, after the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks. The fate of the building cannot be called easy: the shrine often suffered from fires, robberies and destruction. Therefore, some of the rich decorations are irretrievably lost.

Lipsa Monastery on the map:

Church of St. Irene (Aya İrini kilisesi)

Church of St. Irene (Aya İrini kilisesi)

The oldest Christian monastery in Istanbul is the Church of St. Irene. This shrine was founded under Emperor Constantine. In the 4th century, the building was completely destroyed by fire, but ruler Justinian ordered the church to be rebuilt.

Initially, the construction of the church was intended as a dedication to the “Holy World”, and not to a saint named Irene. The first Christian building (basilica) appeared on this territory in the 4th century, and until then there was a temple dedicated to the ancient Greek goddess Aphrodite. For a long period of time, the church, named after St. Irene, was considered the central temple of Constantinople, but later this status passed to the new, more extensive and brighter Church of Hagia Sophia. It is known that in the early 80s of the 4th century the Second Ecumenical Council was held in the Church of St. Irene, famous for that, that on it the doctrine of the Holy Trinity was formed and a number of heresies were anathematized.

Church of St. Irene on the map:

Church of St. Mary of Mongol (Meryem Ana Mogollar kilisesi)

Church of St. Mary of Mongol, engraving

This Greek Orthodox shrine, named after Panagia Mucholiotissa (or Mary of Mongol), is located some distance from traditional tourist trails and even the routes along which pilgrims usually travel.

Church of St. Mary of Mongol, Istanbul

Moreover, not far from the church there is a well-known and frequently visited monument of Byzantine architecture - the Temple of Our Lady of Pammakaristos (Fethiye Jami), in which you can still admire mosaic decorations from the 14th century. Rare tourists deprive this monastery of attention, but for some reason the Church of Mary of Mongol is forgotten.

It is noteworthy that the temple was never converted into a Muslim mosque. Today, like many centuries ago, Christian services are held there.

Church of Mary of Mongol on the map:

Monastery of Pantocrator (Zeyrek camii, Zeyrek Mosque)

Pantocrator Monastery, Istanbul

The extensive one, which includes three equal temples united with each other, is only slightly smaller in size than the famous Hagia Sophia. The unique building dates back to the 12th century. At this time, the Komnenos dynasty was in power.

Monastery of Pantocrator

The shrine was built for quite a long time, in the period from 1118 to 1136. The initiator of the construction of the monastery was John the Second, as well as his wife, Empress Irina.

The northern church was built first and was named in honor of the Lord Pantocrator, the southern one - a little later (it bears the name Eleusse (Merciful Mother of God)). These two buildings are connected by the Chapel of the Archangel Michael. To build it, it was necessary to dismantle part of the external walls of existing churches.

The southern temple today serves as a mosque. The initiator of its construction was entirely Empress Irina. The second temple was built by her husband after the death of his beloved wife.

The third part of the monastery is named Iroon. The royal persons mentioned above were buried in it. Later, other emperors, such as John the Eighth and Manuel the Second, found their final refuge here.

Unfortunately, the shrine was barbarically plundered and destroyed during the crusade at the beginning of the 13th century.

When the Ottomans came to the city, they immediately turned the temple into a mosque. The monastery premises began to play the role of a madrasah. Mullah Zeyrek Mehmed Efendi taught at this school. Not only the mosque itself, but also the whole block was subsequently named after him.

Monastery of Pantocrator on the map:

Church of Our Lady of Blachernae ( Vlaherna Meryem Ana kilisesi)

Church of Our Lady of Blachernae, Istanbul

Almost on the Constantinople border, in the well-known region of Blachernae, there was once a Christian shrine named after the Blachernae Mother of God. This building was erected in the 5th century at the instigation of members of the ruling dynasty of Marcian and Pulcheria. The church became famous from the time when, in the mid-20s of the 7th century, the icon of the Mother of God became salvation for the city, which was being attacked by the Slavs. According to believers, it was the holy image that helped in the sinking of enemy ships.

The Byzantines treated the temple with great respect, but its fate turned out to be unenviable. The building often suffered from fires, and in the 15th century it was completely destroyed by fire. Through the efforts of the Greeks living in Istanbul, a new monastery, but smaller and more modest, was built on the site of an ancient luxurious church. Only a stone font with a spring reminds of the past of this place.

The Orthodox treated the temple with great respect, since the miraculous icon was kept there for many years. The image is not lost today, only it has now been transported to the Moscow Assumption Cathedral. Once upon a time, this icon was presented to Tsar Alexei in 1653 - this is what the clergyman Gabriel from the Jerusalem temple ordered to do.

Church of Our Lady of Blachernae on the map:

Monastery of Studios (Studios Monastery, Imrahor, Uşşaki Cami )

Monastery Studios, reconstruction

According to historical information, this monastery was founded by the Roman patrician Studion, who moved to the city in the mid-5th century, when Leo the First was emperor. The patrician first ordered the construction of a small church in honor of John the Baptist, around which a full-fledged monastery complex subsequently grew. When Constantinople fell under the yoke of Ottoman soldiers, the shrine was converted into a mosque. This was in charge of the stable (imrahor) of Padishah Bayezid II in 1486. The Muslim monastery was named Imrahor Ilyas Bey. A kind of calligraphy school was opened in the building.

Monastery Studios, Istanbul

In the early 80s of the 18th century, the mosque was severely destroyed by fire; some of the buildings were restored over the course of many years, but all efforts were nullified by the earthquake of 1894. The cultural monument suffered greatly, and to top it all off, the roof collapsed in 1908. Today, guests and residents of Istanbul have the opportunity to see only ruins, and only partially - the townspeople once dismantled most of the materials to repair their own homes. But still, among the ruins, elements of flooring made of marble, malachite and porphyry can be seen.

Studii Monastery on the map:

Kariye Museum (Church of Christ the Savior in Khora, Khora manastırı)

Kariye Museum, Istanbul

It was opened in the building of the ancient Church of Christ the Savior in Chora. Translated into Russian, the name of the museum means “suburb”. The shrine itself, sheltering on its territory museum exhibits, dates back to 4-5 centuries. But the most significant and expensive thing in this building is not them, but the frescoes and mosaics that have survived to this day from the time of Emperor Andronicus II. These magnificent decorations appeared in the temple through the efforts of the first minister and chief imperial treasurer Theodore Metochites, who used all his financial savings for such a good cause.

When Constantinople became Istanbul, the Ottoman Grand Vizier ordered the church to be converted into a mosque, which was given the name Kariye. And at the end of the 50s of the 20th century, museum halls were founded in it.

Kariye Museum on the map:

Fethiye Museum (Temple of Our Lady of Pammakaristos, Pammakaristos Manastırı)

The monastery of Panagia Pammakaristos was built during the reign of the imperial dynasties of Komnenos and Douk, that is, in the 11th-12th centuries. At that moment, a new trend in architecture was already visible - decorating not only the interior, but also the exterior of temples. A chapel decorated with mosaics was added to the ancient monastery in the 14th century. Some frescoes have survived to this day.

For a long time, the church served as the “home” for Christian patriarchy. According to historians, Sultan Mehmed II even came here. He spent hours talking with Patriarch Gennadios and gaining knowledge about Orthodox theology. When Padishah Murad the Third came to power in the 16th century, he managed to conquer Georgia and Azerbaijan. In honor of this event, it was decided to turn the temple into a Fethiye mosque (translated into Russian this word means “conquest”). The patriarchy was given another territory.

Fethiye Museum (Temple of Our Lady of Pammakarista)

The chapel underwent extensive restoration in 2005. On the main dome you can see the faces of Christ Pantocrator and 12 prophets. In the apse there are images of John the Baptist, the Virgin Mary and Christ the Blesser. The rooms containing mosaics serve as a museum. By the way, quite a lot of frescoes have been preserved - more of them can be seen only in the Kariye and Hagia Sophia museums.

The cost of a ticket to the museum is 5 liras, free with the Museum Card.

Fethiye Museum on the map:

Palaces and other monuments of the Byzantine era

Mosaic Museum (Büyük Saray Mozaikleri Müzesi, part of the large Imperial Palace)

Mosaic Museum, Istanbul

The building that today houses this unique museum complex is part of the peristyle of the large Imperial Palace. Mosaic paintings discovered in Istanbul are considered the most valuable finds that tell the story of the history of the entire Empire.

Mosaic canvas in the Mosaic Museum

Once upon a time, the palace structure was not just the home of the imperial dynasty. The most important ceremonial rites of both civil and religious significance were held here. When renovation work was carried out on the building in the early 30s of the 20th century, restorers came across elements of a mosaic floor covering. Then archaeologists got down to business. They established that the find was an ancient peristyle, the dimensions of which reached 2,000 square meters. km. Now a special mosaic museum has been founded on this square, where rare mosaic images from the 5th and 6th centuries are presented.

The frescoes consist of miniature cubes made of glass, lime and terracotta. The size of one cube does not exceed 5 mm. Thus, in one sq. meter of coverage there are over 40,000 individual parts. The pictures are quite epic. There are peasants, hunters, shepherds, and various representatives of the fauna, as well as mythological subjects. Despite the passing of years, the drawings look bright and lively.

The cost of a ticket to the museum is 15 liras, with free admission.

Mosaic Museum on the map:

Column of Constantine ( Çemberlitas Sütunu)

Column of Constantine (Çemberlitaş Sütunu)

Famous Roman triumphal column Istanbul is geographically located on the city square Cemberlitas. The date of its foundation is considered to be 328, but the landmark was opened in a solemn ceremony only 2 years after its construction - May 11, 330. This significant date is the founding day of the glorious capital of the Byzantine Empire.

The main material used to construct the column was pink porphyry. The height of the structure is 34.8 meters.

To preserve the landmark in its original form and protect it from destruction, the column was fastened with strong metal hoops during the reign of Theodosius the Second. Initially, the column was crowned with a statue of the emperor, rising on special drums, but under the ruler Alexei I Komnenos, these parts were damaged by lightning - they were simply knocked down, but the base was not damaged.

Today, tourists and city residents have the opportunity to admire the 35-meter beauty, consisting of 6 cylinders held by iron hoops. The decorations for each of the cylinders are images of laurel wreaths. Legends have survived to this day according to which, during the construction of the column, several religious relics were placed at its base, including a wooden statue of the goddess Athena, Noah’s ax, Moses’ staff, crumbs from the bread of Jesus Christ, etc.

Now the column of Constantine has been renamed in the Turkish manner, and it is called Cemberlitash (“Burnt Column”).

Column of Constantine on the map:

Ruins of Bukoleon Palace (Bukoleon Sarayı)

Palace of Vukoleon (Bukoleon), reconstruction

The palace building called Bukoleon was once part of the so-called Grand Palace. According to historical data, the construction of this architectural masterpiece was carried out during the reign of Theodosius II, that is, in the 5th century. The palace is located on the sea coast, a little south of the famous Hippodrome and east of the Temple of Sergius and Bacchus.

The restoration and expansion of the palace was later carried out by Emperor Theophilos. With him, the building acquired a huge façade, which was erected above the walls facing the sea. At the end of the 60s of the 10th century, another ruler, Nikephoros the Second, ordered the construction of a contour wall. Bucoleon was the central palace complex until the 11th century. For a long time it was used for holding state meetings and religious meetings. The first persons of other states visited here, in particular the King of Jerusalem Amalric and the Sultan of Roma.

Subsequently, only ruins remained of the palace, but they were also destroyed in some places during the construction of railway tracks in 1873. From the surviving remains it is clear that the palace had a large balcony overlooking sea ​​coast, which could be reached through three entrances at once. Each door was trimmed with marble. This can still be seen today.

You can see the ruins remaining from the grandiose palace for free. You can get to the ruins by going down towards the embankment from Sultanahmet, to the Çatladıkapı transport stop.

Bucoleon Palace on the map:

Reservoirs of Constantinople

Valens Aqueduct (Bozdoğan Su Kemeri)

Valens Aqueduct (Bozdoğan Su Kemeri)

Construction of the Valens Aqueduct began during the reign of Constantine the Great. The undertakings of this emperor were continued by another head of state - Valens (364-378). The water supply project was finally completed in 378. The main material for the construction of the two-tier trestle structure was stone, which was separated and brought from the destroyed Chalcedonian wall. It is known that the city of the same name, in which the wall was located, during the period of the rebellious uprising against Emperor Valens 14, occupied the position of the enemy - the usurper and rebel Procopius.

When Constantinople submitted to the Ottomans, the Turks repaired the entire engineering water supply system related to the dilapidated aqueduct, and the “overpass” itself was also restored. How large the scale of the water supply system is has become clear relatively recently. In 2007, reconnaissance archaeologists identified as much as 650 km.

Valens Aqueduct on the map:

Basilica Cistern (Yerebatan sarnıcı)

Basilica Cistern, Istanbul

is a huge reservoir preserved from the times of the Byzantine Empire. This object received its name thanks to the basilica, which once stood on the site of the current Hagia Sophia. The infrastructure facility, which today is one of the main attractions, was erected under Constantine the Great, and reconstruction work and expansion was ordered by another ruler, Justinian. The dimensional parameters of the tank surprise even seasoned tourists. The length of the Basilica stretches for 145 meters, the width of the reservoir is about 65 meters. Rows of columns, of which there are 336 in total, literally “grew” into the ceiling covering. The height of each of them is 8 meters!

The walls of the tank are very thick (about 4 meters), they were laid out of brick, and the outside was covered with a special waterproof compound. According to experts, the Basilica can hold about 80,000 cubic meters of water.

Basilica Cistern on the map:

Theodosius Cistern (Şerefiye sarnıcı)

Theodosius Cistern (Sherefiye), Istanbul

Not far from the famous Istanbul Basilica Cistern there is a similar structure, which was opened to the public relatively recently, after a large-scale restoration.

Not all tourists coming to Istanbul have heard about the Theodosius Cistern, because it was discovered only in 2010. This unique historical landmark was found under the foundation of a huge mansion. The house was sent for demolition, and the cistern began to be put in order, repaired and improved. This painstaking work lasted a little less than 8 years. The dimensional parameters of Feodosia turned out to be comparable to the Basilica, but it was built, according to archaeologists, a whole century earlier - around the 4th century.

Today it is known that this reservoir was filled from a water pipeline laid from the Belgrade Forest. Using a tank fresh water The Great Palace was supplied, including all its many fountains, as well as the famous baths of Zeuxippus.

Theodosius Cistern on the map:

Philoxene tank (Binbirdirek sarnıcı)

Philoxena Cistern, Istanbul

- one of the most important reservoirs built during the reign of Constantine the First (324-337). In size, Philoxena was second only to the famous Basilica. It is located in a western direction from the city hippodrome. The capacity of the tank is amazing - initially it could store up to 325 cubic meters of water. The storage area is about 3700 sq.m.

The building has 3 tiers. True, there is no access to the first tier now, since it is completely flooded. The structure is made in the form of a huge hypostyle chamber supported by vaults.

In Turkish, the name of the tank sounds like “Binbirdirek”, which translated into Russian means “1001 column”. In fact, the colonnade in the reservoir consists of 224 parts, so the Turkish name is greatly exaggerated.

In the 12th century, Philoxena was recharged using the Valens aqueduct. The water supply was later upgraded so that the cistern could be filled from the Pera reservoir and also collected rainwater. Throughout the entire period of the Byzantine Empire, the reservoir regularly performed its functions, but in the 15th century it was abandoned. The Turks converted the cistern, which had fallen into disrepair, into a silk-dying workshop in the 16th century. Now a museum complex has been opened within the walls of this unique city landmark.

Philoxenus Cistern on the map:

City walls of Constantinople (Theodosian walls)

Walls of Constantinople

The fact that the walls of Constantinople have survived to this day is a great success, since in the mid-19th century there was a European tendency to destroy the so-called “medieval rudiments”, which were precisely such walls.

Walls of Constantinople

But the Ottomans decided not to follow the European fashion - Istanbul simply developed, gradually combining the old with the new into a single whole. Thus, today we have the opportunity to admire the seven-kilometer-long monument of Roman-Byzantine antiquity.

The walls around the city were once built by order of Emperor Theodosius II. The construction was supervised by the prefect of the East, Anthemius. The fortifications were stretched along the shore of the Sea of ​​Marmara all the way to the Golden Horn Bay. They were built over five long years. There were 10 strong gates built into the walls, through each of which one could enter the city. Some have survived to this day.

On the southern side, the fortifications began from the Marble Tower. The walls went north to the Tekfur palace building, and there they connected with the walls of Blachernae.

Theodosian walls on the map:

The Cathedral of Sophia in Constantinople (532-537) - the most grandiose and most outstanding work of Byzantine architecture - is one of the most significant monuments of world architecture. It is to this that the main attention should be paid when studying Byzantine architecture.

The builders of the Sophia of Constantinople - Anthemius of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus - were outstanding engineers and architects, very developed, highly educated people who owned the entire amount of knowledge of their era. Both of them had a very broad architectural and general outlook. This allowed them to freely choose in the past what could be useful in the construction of the greatest building of our time.

The Cathedral of Sophia in Constantinople is one of those works of architecture that are deeply connected with the past, in which all the main achievements of the architecture of previous eras are taken into account, but in which the new dominates. New purposes, new constructive techniques and new architectural and artistic features are so prevalent in Sofia that they come to the fore, pushing aside the traditional and overshadowing it.

Sophia of Constantinople was the main building of the entire Byzantine Empire. It was a church at the social center of the capital and a patriarchal temple. Due to the fact that in Byzantium religion played a huge role in the life of the state, Sophia was the main public building of the empire. This outstanding significance of Sophia was very clearly expressed in the choice of place for it and in its very placement among the dominant buildings of the Byzantine capital. The main streets of the city converged from several city gates to the main street (Mesi). The latter ended with Augustion Square, which overlooked Sofia, the Hippodrome and the Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors. This entire complex of public buildings, among which Sophia dominated, was the ultimate goal of movement along the city streets, the opposite end of which branched into the main roads of the European part of the empire. Augustion and the buildings adjacent to it occupied the apex of the triangle on which Constantinople was located, located at the tip of the European continent, extended towards Asia. It was the intersection of two main trade routes of antiquity and the Middle Ages: the west-east land route that connected Europe with Asia, and the north-south sea route (the so-called “from the Varangians to the Greeks”), which connected Scandinavia with the Mediterranean Sea. Sofia was the largest, most compact and massive architectural structure not only on Augustion, but throughout the capital. It marked a place that could truly be called the center of the world in early Byzantine times.

It did not stand isolated, but was surrounded by many different buildings and courtyards. It was impossible to go around it directly. Visible only from the courtyards and streets adjacent to it, it towered above neighboring buildings, colonnades of peristyle courtyards and squares. Only its eastern façade was completely open: the apse was visible all the way to the top. This arrangement in the ensemble gave especially great architectural significance to the crowning parts of the building. It was they who were visible above other buildings when approaching Sofia; from a distance they crowned the center of the capital, and even architectural ensemble all of Constantinople.

The new typological solution for Sophia, found by Anthimius and Isidore, was based on the requirements of everyday life, which were reflected in the organization of the cathedral plan. Sophia was a building in which the broad masses of the people, who flocked to the cathedral from the streets and squares of the capital, met with the highest aristocracy and bureaucracy of the empire, headed by the emperor and patriarch, emerging from the neighboring Grand Palace. These meetings were accompanied by complex theatrical ceremonies of a religious nature. The sequence of actions in symbolic form depicted the history of the world as interpreted in the Holy Scriptures. Conventional movements and actions were carried out in a strictly regulated manner by numerous clergy of various ranks, headed by the patriarch and the emperor. They were dressed in rich clothes made of beautifully selected valuable fabrics. Through solemn processions and strictly recorded exclamations and chants, the most significant moments in the history of mankind were depicted, which were concentrated around the story of Christ.

In order to hold such services, it was necessary to create a structure with a large open central space for ceremonies and spacious surrounding rooms for a huge number of spectators. In the center there should have been a pulpit-pulpit - the focal point of the ceremonies, depicting in the course of the action either the cave where Christ was born, or the mountain on which he was crucified, etc. The central part of the building was supposed to have an appendage in the form of an altar, depicting the heavenly kingdom, while it itself represented the earth, where the events depicted took place. There was constant communication between earth and heaven, but the altar was separated from the audience by a low barrier that hid the heavenly world. Those present could look into it only periodically when the gates opened. In front of the main room there would have been a more closed part of the interior, in which participants in the processions could gather before entering the main room.

Similar functional requirements, which arose in a less developed form in the previous period, gave rise to the architectural type of domed basilica, which was chosen for the main temple of the Byzantine Empire by Anthemius and Isidore. However, the colossal size of Sofia, the special crowd and the originality of the ceremonies taking place in it - all this forced the architects of Sofia to rethink the very architectural type of the domed basilica and organize it in a new way, taking into account the Roman architectural experience, which was well known to them.

Anthimius and Isidore, both originally from Asia Minor, based their construction on the Asia Minor type of domed basilica, where the central part of the building was covered with a dome. This introduced the beginning of centricity into the building, as a result of which the basilica was greatly shortened, as if pulled up to the dome. Such a domed basilica contained the main necessary premises: the main central room, which is adjacent to the altar, two-tier galleries for spectators and a narthex.

The question arises about the main difference between such domed basilicas - the predecessors of Sophia - from the ancient Christian basilicas of Rome - these first above-ground Christian churches in the western capital of the empire after official recognition new religion. The difference is the addition of a dome. In the ancient Christian basilica, everything was directed towards the altar, which was the main, sole center of the interior. In the domed basilica, along with the altar, a second center appears under the dome. This indicates a profound change in the very concept of a church building, due to a change in religious ideology.

With the further development of the domed basilica, the dome did not supplant the altar apse. However, gradually it became the main visible center of the interior. The centric principle he introduced intensified more and more. The basilica shortened and pulled itself closer to the dome. As a result, the main architectural emphasis was transferred from the apse to the dome, and the building turned from a basilica into a centric structure.

The main difficulty that the architects faced when designing Sofia was that the domed basilicas that existed in the Byzantine world were very modest in size, while Sofia was supposed to become a grandiose structure. Another difficulty, purely constructive, was that the wooden ceiling was not suitable for an interior with a diameter of more than 30 m. The dome had to be made of stone for ideological and artistic reasons. It was supposed to depict the vault of heaven crowning the earth - the central part of the interior. The entire building inside had to look uniform, it all had to be stone from the base to the vault locks.

Vaulted buildings of very large dimensions were well known to Anthimius and Isidore. Apparently, the architects took them as a model, choosing the most grandiose and remarkable buildings. The plans of the architects corresponded to the most grandiose Roman basilica, at the same time a vaulted one, and the most outstanding domed building, and it turned out to be possible to combine the features of these two buildings. These two buildings were the Basilica of Maxentius and the Pantheon. If in our time an architect were asked to name the two most outstanding Roman buildings, he could not have chosen better.

The plan of Sophia clearly indicates that it was the Basilica of Maxentius that was the basis of her system. The plan is divided into nine parts by four intermediate pillars, so that the central nave becomes three-part. Architects borrowed choirs from domed basilicas, which allowed them to greatly increase the capacity of the side naves intended for worshipers.

The most outstanding architectural achievement of the two builders of Sofia is the technique with which they linked together the Basilica of Maxentius and the dome of the Pantheon in their work. This technique is one of the most daring and successful ideas in the architecture of the past. This ingenious solution simultaneously embraced the functional, constructive and artistic sides of architecture. It led to a surprisingly complete complex architectural image.

Anthymius and Isidore invented a system of semi-domes connecting the dome of Sophia with its basilica base. This system includes two large half-domes and five small ones. In principle there should have been six small semi-domes, but one of them was replaced by a barrel vault over the main entrance to the central part of the narthex interior. This departure from the general system perfectly highlighted the main entrance portal and two smaller portals on its sides. Processions entered through these portals from the narthex; the emperor and the patriarch passed through the main portal. The half-domes perfectly connected the basilica and the dome. This created a completely new type of domed basilica, the only representative of which is the Sophia of Constantinople.

The compositional technique used by Anthimius and Isidore fixes the location of the dome in the very center of the building. In the domed basilicas of previous times, the location of the dome constantly fluctuated due to the possibility of lengthening or shortening the barrel vaults located to the west and east of the dome. Usually the altar still attracted the dome.

In Sofia, half-domes create similar shapes to the east and west of the dome, having the same depth. Thanks to this, the dome cannot be moved from its place and confidently marks the center of the building. At the same time, the apse conch is included in the system of semi-domes. This means that the altar part is naturally tied to the dome and to the main part of the interior. This is how an architectural system was created that legitimized both centers of Sofia - the dome and the apse, the pulpit and the altar. As a result, the system of semi-domes perfectly connected the orientation towards the altar of the basilica and the centricity of the domed building. In Sofia, the basilica and the dome are internally organically connected with each other. This is truly a real domed basilica, the crown of the entire development of this architectural type.

The semi-dome of Sofia played an equally significant role in terms of architectural and constructive aspects. The huge dome of Sophia creates a very strong thrust. In the southern and northern directions, the thrust is extinguished by powerful pillars, two on each side. The vaults of the side naves, located in two tiers, participate in extinguishing the expansion of the dome in the same direction. In the eastern and western directions, the thrust is extinguished by semi-domes. The outstanding significance of this solution lies in the fact that the semi-domes fulfill their constructive role without cluttering the interior of the main part and without violating its integrity.

The artistic significance of the System of Domes and Half-Domes of Sofia is also remarkable. This system simultaneously solves a whole range of artistic problems.

The half-domes all together form a geometric figure approaching an oval. It is by this that they create an intermediate link between the basilica and the centric building. In principle, three figures are formed, inscribed into each other, gradually transforming into one another: the rectangle of the main outline of the plan, the oval of the semi-domes and the circle of the dome. The oval serves as a transition from a rectangle to a circle.

In concrete spatial expression, this scheme takes on a particularly complete and organic form. The semi-domes continue the rhythm of increasing interior space from the side naves to the central one. As the semi-domes develop towards the dome, the space increases until it culminates in the center. In the opposite direction, the central space under the dome gradually falls in both directions and is then replaced by the space of the side naves.

A comparison of Sophia and the Pantheon reveals the fundamental difference between them in the interpretation of the dome. In the Pantheon, the space under the dome is static, it is a closed, huge piece of space in its compactness, firmly outlined by the walls and dome. In Sofia, the central interior space is light, airy and dynamic. Openwork colonnades connect it with all the surrounding neighboring rooms. The space increases on all sides towards the crowning dome. The dome itself appears and is, as it were, built in time before the eyes of the viewer; it gradually develops from semi-domes. The latter cover only part of the interior, while the dome closes the entire interior from above.

The huge central space of Sofia and the much lower and cramped side naves, divided into two tiers, are arranged differently and contrast with each other. At the same time, they complement each other and, when combined, form a single architectural image.

The side naves intended for the people are similar to palace halls. As studies of the Great Palace of Constantinople show, this similarity really took place and, moving from the palace to Sofia, noble parishioners saw in front of them, as it were, a continuation of the suites of palace halls. Each side nave of Sofia is perceived as a picturesque space somewhat unclear in its boundaries and dimensions. Transverse walls with arches cover not only the outer walls, but also the colonnades of the middle nave. As you move along the nave, the transverse walls and columns form a variety of combinations, visible from different angles and various mutual intersections. When larger pieces of the outer walls are exposed, their openwork character emerges. At the bottom they are denser, as they are cut through only by three large windows in each division of the wall. Above these windows, continuous glazing opens under the semi-circular curve of the vault, so that light flows freely into the interior. On the opposite side of the nave this corresponds to the colonnades opening into the middle nave.

The overall picturesqueness of the side naves is enhanced by the marble cladding that rises to the base of the vaults and is fenced on top with a marble cut cornice, as well as the gold mosaics covering the vaults. Due to the strong division of space and numerous transverse walls, different parts of the rooms are illuminated differently. The degree of illumination is deeply thought out and precisely weighed by the craftsmen.

In relation to such compositions, one researcher successfully used the term “light organ”: he likened to music the harmonious composition of shades of light and shadow in architecture. Color effects are combined with this. The marble slabs covering the walls and the marble of the columns are finely selected. Pale pink and complementary pale green shades predominate. Overall, a single, gentle tone is formed. The chiaroscuro of the carved cornices and the light ornamental colored frames of the golden mosaic surfaces complement the overall effect, deeply thought out and unusually harmonious.

Due to the relatively low height of the side naves, their dimensions are well related to the height of a person. The columns supporting the vaults are, to a certain extent, characterized by an order origin, inherited from antiquity. They protrude forward and play the role of a connecting element between the human figure and the interior space. Leaning on the columns, the eye reads the architectural composition as a whole.

The structure of the central nave is based on different compositional principles. The interior of the main part of Sofia has gigantic dimensions and a clearly defined spatial shape. The space of the main room of Sofia is clearly limited by a strict linear skeleton and straight and concave surfaces. The main structure is simply and clearly indicated by vertical lines that flow into the lines of the arches and the circumference of the dome ring. Paul Silentiarius, a contemporary of Justinian I, figuratively says that the dome of Sophia appears to be floating in the air, as if it were suspended on a chain to the sky.

Conclusion: early Byzantine architecture gave rise, first, to the formation of an independent variety of Byzantine architecture, and then to the creation, on an ancient and Byzantine basis, of its own architecture. The greatest merit of early Byzantine architecture was that it gave a powerful impetus to its further development.